Psychosocial Factors That Promote Successful Aging
By Douglas Galligan

There are several psychological and social factors that have been linked to increased individual
life expectancy and quality of life in older adults. While the majority of attention in the life
extension and successful aging field has focused on physical factors such as exercise, diet, sleep,
genetics and so on, there is a growing body of evidence that suggests that psychological and
sociological factors also have a significant influence on how well individuals age (Warnick, 1995).

Warnick (1995) believes that adjusting to the changes that accompany late adulthood and old age
requires that an individual is able to be flexible and develop new coping skills to adapt to the
changes that are common to this time in their lives. Aging research has demonstrated a positive
correlation between someone's religious beliefs, social relationships, perceived health, self-
efficacy, socioeconomic status, and coping skills among others to their ability to age more
successfully. The term successful aging has been defined by three main components: "low probability
of disease and disease related disability, high cognitive and physical functional capacity, and
active engagement with life" (Rowe & Kahn, 1997).

Baltes and Baltes (1990) suggested that the term successful aging appears paradoxical, as aging
traditionally brings to mind images of loss, decline, and ultimate death, whereas success is
represented by achievement. However, the application of the term, successful aging, they argue
forces a reexamination of the nature of old age as it presently exists. "An inclusive definition of
successful aging requires a value based, systemic, and ecological perspective, considering both
subjective and objective indicators within a cultural context" (Baltes & Baltes, 1990).

With medical advancements and improvements in living conditions people can now expect to live
longer lives than ever before. But, the prospect of merely living longer presents many problems.
This fact has led researchers to investigate the psychological aspects of aging, with a goal of
making the additional years more worth living. There is a great deal of information that leads us
to be hopeful about the prospective quality of life in late adulthood and old age.

Religious beliefs, spirituality, and church participation have been the focus of numerous studies
involving older adults. Various studies have associated religiousness with well-being, life
satisfaction or happiness (VanNess & Larson, 2002). Although it will be necessary for future
research to more clearly specify which dimensions of religious participation are beneficial to
which outcomes (Levin & Chatters, 1998), it appears that certain aspects of religious participation
enables elderly people to cope with and overcome emotional and physical problems more effectively,
leading to a heightened sense of well being in late adulthood.

It is commonly known that suicide rates are higher among elderly people, and there is evidence that
persons who engage in religious activity are more than four times less likely to commit suicide
(Nisbet, Duberstein, Conwell, et al: 2000). The inverse association between religiousness and
suicide rate in elderly individuals may be due to the fact that religious beliefs help elderly
people cope with or prevent depression and hopelessness, which are established risk factors for
suicide (Abramson, Alloy, Hogan, et al: 2000). The relationship between religiousness and
successful aging is an extremely complex one. This makes it difficult to pinpoint which factors of
participation in a religious organization lead to the increased sense of well-being, satisfaction,
and happiness. It is possible that religiousness exerts its beneficial effects by creating positive
emotions that stimulate the immune system. Or, it may provide access to social and psychological
resources that buffer the impact of stress and aid ones ability to effectively cope (Ellison, 1995).

Membership in religious organizations also provides older individuals with a social network from
which to draw emotional support and encouragement, while enhancing one`s ability to adapt to change
and buffer stress (Levin, Markides, Ray, 1996). Research has shown that social networks, such as
those commonly found in religious organizations are associated with positive health outcomes in
older adults, including lower risk of mortality, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and functional
decline (Seeman, 1996). The relationships that are fostered within the church or religious group
serve for many as a replacement for the social groups that they engaged in at work before
retirement. In addition, the attitudes that are learned from religiously committed peers may
benefit ones health through encouragement of healthy behaviors and lifestyle lowering the risk of
disease (Levin & Chatters, 1998).

One of the common threads that has been found to correlate with successful aging is the
individual's socioeconomic status, particularly education and income levels (Meeks & Murrell,
2001). The relationship between education level and subjective well-being has been demonstrated
consistently. Meeks and Murrell (2001) found that education did have direct effects on negative
affect, trait health and life satisfaction. Their research concluded that higher educational
attainment is associated with lower levels of negative affect, which is related to better health
and increased life satisfaction (Meeks & Murrell, 2001). This may be due to the fact
that "individuals with higher education levels benefit from the opportunities and resources related
to educational attainment that produce accumulated success experiences and contribute to superior
functioning in later life" (Meeks & Murrell, 2001). It is also possible that more educated people
develop superior methods for problem solving and coping with change. Higher education levels have
been shown to provide individuals with better occupational opportunities and social status through
adulthood and greater financial stability during the transition to retirement. This establishes
education level as ones foundation for successful aging (Meeks & Murrell, 2001).

Material wealth and income have been shown to have a direct relationship to subjective well-being
(Andrews, 1986). For many, the sense of well-being is especially effected by their feelings of
income adequacy as they move into retirement. Many individuals face retirement with great anxiety
due to the lack of sufficient savings to replace their income. The reality of living on a small
fixed income limits the lifestyle and ability to adapt to the changes of late adult medical needs
for many elderly people. People with greater resources at retirement have access to greater variety
of opportunities and activities (Jurgmeen, & Moen, 2002). In addition, the access to surplus income
allows for more recreation and less stress from financial concerns. This notion that wealth and
well-being are related is also supported by a microeconomics theory that states that an increase in
the income level of a society would lead, other things being constant, to greater well being
(Easterlin & Christine, 1999).

However, it is important to keep in mind that increases in individual income levels are relative to
the changes in one's reference group (Lian & Fairchild, 1979). Increases in income are considered
to be relative. In other words, if an individual's gains in economic status outpace the gains of
the reference group then the individual will likely experience a greater sense of satisfaction. On
the other hand, if their gains are equal to the average in their reference group, there will likely
be no change. If the increases are less than the reference group than the result will be less
satisfaction. Therefore, it may be important for many older adults transitioning to retirement to
have adequate savings or other income in order to maintain or exceed their previous financial
status.

The relationship between education and income to successful aging is a complex one that involves
numerous external variables. But it seems that there is conclusive evidence that both education and
income levels help to prepare an individual for the changes that they will face in old age
and "influence on their ability to view aging as an opportunity for continued growth as opposed to
an experience of social loss" (Steveink, Westerhof, Bode, et al, 2001).

One of the most important aspects of how well individuals age is related to their ability to
develop and maintain strong relationships and social support systems (Rowe & Kahn, 1998). It is
also important to mention that solitude, or a lack of social interaction, is considered a major
health risk factor (Unger, McAvay, Bruce, et al, 1999). Recent studies suggest that the effects of
social ties on the risk of physical decline in elderly are greater in men than women. These studies
also report that there is a strong relationship between social support or social networks to the
probability to cardiovascular and all cause mortality for men (Berkman, Seeman, Albert, et al,1993).

This gender difference could be explained by the fact that women devote a greater portion of their
lives caretaking and developing friendships, so they are more accustomed to building and utilizing
social networks. While men, in contrast, have devoted a greater portion of their lives to their
careers, therefore, they have not developed the social networks or skills to utilize these networks
that most women have (Unger, McAvay, Bruce, et al, 1999). In addition, social ties appear to be
most important among elderly individuals with less physical ability (Unger, McAvay, Bruce, et al,
1999). It seems that people with physical disabilities have a greater need to develop friendships
and support networks to assist them in coping with the limitations caused by their conditions.
Friends and family provide them with a means to continue participating in social activities and
complete the tasks of everyday living that they may be unable to accomplish on their own. This
provides support for the belief that establishing strong social networks may increase not only
quality of life, but quantity as well.

Social relationships and social support systems serve as protective factors in many ways (Bovbjerg
& McCann, et al, 1995), (Krause & Borawski-Clarke, 1994). They benefit individuals by enhancing
self esteem, providing encouragement, and promoting healthy behaviors. It is also possible that
social networks may provide more tangible assistance such as food, clothing, and transportation.
This type of assistance enables an elderly person to remain socially active even though they may
not have the means to do so on their own. It is also important to distinguish the difference
between receiving support and assistance from friends or relatives as opposed to agency assistance.

Possibly the most important source of social support comes from the family, which provides self-
system mechanisms which increase an individual's subjective impression of life satisfaction. In
addition families provide a system of support and interaction that may not be available from
outside sources for some elderly people. All of these types of networks may prevent the degree of
social isolation in old age, that is associated with depression and other psychological problems
(Krause, 1991).

With all of the physical and psychological changes that people face in late adulthood i.e.,
decreases in vision, hearing, memory, etc., the ability to adapt to life circumstances that force
aging individuals to move from one living style to another is an integral part of successful aging
(Warnick, 1995). Simply maintaining the ability to perform the everyday tasks of living is not
necessarily considered successful aging. Successful aging requires the maintenance of competence
involving cognitive, personality, material, and social resources (Baltes & Lang, 1993). Adapting to
these changes requires the use of flexible strategies to optimize personal functioning (Baltes &
Baltes, 1990).

The strategies that one may employ to cope with the changes that accompany the aging process may be
limited not only by the individuals ability to utilize a new strategy, such as learning sign
language or walking with a cane, but also by their perception of their ability to do so. Many
elderly people will avoid using new tools to adapt to change if they believe that they are
unprepared to make such an adjustment (Slagen-DeKort, 2001). Perceived self efficacy is defined
as "peoples judgment of their capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required
to attain designated types of performance" ( Bandura, 1986). People who believe in their ability
will set higher goals for themselves and expect that they will be able to achieve these goals. Self
efficacy has been found to influence the adaptive strategies used by older adults (Slangen-DeKort,
1999).

There are two dispositions besides perception of self efficacy that influence individuals ability
to cope, these are flexibility and tenacity (Slangen-DeKort, 1999). Tenacity is defined by an
individuals persistence with which they are able to remain focused upon their goals in the face of
obstacles. Flexibility refers to ones ability to readjust goals based on new information. The
research of Slangen-DeKort et al (1999) concludes that self referent beliefs regarding personal
competence influence adaptive behavior and the choice of adaptive strategies. "The direct effect,
which is strongest, implies that even if a person appraises a certain adaptation as the most
optimal one, this adaptation may not be adopted when this person perceives that the required
efforts exceed his or her personal competence. In this case, a less optimal alternative strategy
will be embraced." (Maddox & Douglas, 1973).

Given the enormous number of variables that are involved in determining how well an individual will
age, it is impossible to point to one factor as being the most important. But, it is safe to say
that ones ability to successfully age is determined to a great extent by their attitudes toward
aging and growing old. These positive and negative attitudes will be the result of how effectively
an individual is able to adapt to the physical, psychological, and social changes that will take
place throughout adulthood. If someone is able to accept the changes of life and look forward to
the challenges that they present with hope and desire to change, then they will be better prepared
to face old age. In addition, the relationships and beliefs that are developed across the life span
will be relied upon in old age as a resource for support and assistance in coping. Upon examining
research on successful aging, it seems that many of the concepts that are applied to earlier
developmental stages are equally important in old age.

For example, change, adaptation, personal growth, and cognitive function are aspects of development
that may be as important in old age as they are in childhood development. In conclusion, it seems
that the present and future of aging research may be used to develop medical and psychological
interventions that will provide a more positive aging experience and well-being in old age.

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Doug Galligan is a Personal Trainer and Health Club Manager with over 20 years of experience in the
fitness industry. You can visit his site at: http://www.louisvillepersonaltraining.com
E-Mail: d.galligan@Insightbb.com

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• Name: Douglas Galligan - Personal Trainer
• Date: 01/07/08 at 10:57
• Email: d.galligan@Insightbb.com
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